As governments across Europe tighten immigration and nationality policies, citizenship by descent remains one of the most valuable—and often overlooked—pathways to obtaining European citizenship. Unlike residency or investment-based routes, citizenship by descent allows eligible individuals to claim nationality based on their family lineage. But eligibility rules vary significantly by country, and 2025 and 2026 have already shown how quickly those rules can change.
What Is Citizenship by Descent?
Citizenship by descent, often referred to by the Latin term jus sanguinis (“right of blood”), allows individuals to acquire citizenship through their parents, grandparents, or, in some cases, more distant ancestors.
Unlike naturalization, applicants generally do not need to live in the country for several years before qualifying. Instead, they must demonstrate that citizenship has passed through their family line under the country’s nationality laws.
For many families, this route offers access to European citizenship without making a qualifying investment or completing lengthy residency requirements.
Why Citizenship by Descent Is Receiving More Attention in 2026
Interest in ancestry-based citizenship has grown as governments continue tightening traditional immigration pathways. Residency requirements for naturalization are becoming longer in several countries, while investment migration programs have faced increasing scrutiny across Europe.
At the same time, millions of people worldwide have European ancestry through parents, grandparents, or earlier generations. For those who qualify, citizenship by descent may provide access to an EU passport, the right to live and work across much of Europe, and the ability to pass citizenship to future generations, depending on national law.
However, 2025 and 2026 also demonstrated that these pathways are not guaranteed to remain unchanged. Italy, historically one of Europe’s most generous ancestry-based citizenship programs, significantly narrowed eligibility in 2025 by introducing new generational limits. Spain closed its own ancestry-based pathway entirely that same year, ending a program that had processed over a million applications. Portugal followed in 2026, closing one descent route while opening another with stricter conditions attached. Together, these changes underscore a wider shift: countries that once treated ancestry-based citizenship as a settled, permanent right are now actively revisiting who qualifies.
Countries Offering Citizenship by Descent
Ireland
Ireland remains one of Europe’s most accessible ancestry-based citizenship programs.
Individuals born to an Irish parent are generally Irish citizens automatically. Those with an Irish-born grandparent can usually apply by registering on the Foreign Births Register before claiming citizenship.
For later generations, eligibility depends on whether the parent had already registered before the applicant’s birth.
Ireland’s straightforward administrative process and clear legal framework continue to make it one of the most popular citizenship-by-descent destinations.
Italy
Italy experienced the most significant change in European citizenship law in recent years.
For decades, Italy allowed many descendants of Italian emigrants to claim citizenship regardless of how many generations had passed, provided the family lineage remained legally intact.
That changed with reforms introduced in 2025.
Under the updated framework, eligibility has become substantially narrower, with automatic claims generally limited to individuals who have an Italian-born parent or grandparent, subject to the detailed requirements of the revised law. The reform was introduced to reduce growing application volumes and strengthen the connection between applicants and Italy.
For prospective applicants, verifying eligibility under the current legislation is now essential before beginning the application process.
Poland
Poland continues to offer one of Europe’s strongest ancestry-based citizenship pathways.
Applicants may qualify if they can demonstrate uninterrupted descent from Polish citizens while proving that citizenship was not lost under previous nationality laws.
Unlike some countries, Poland’s assessment often focuses on whether citizenship legally passed through successive generations rather than applying a simple generational limit.
Historical records, military documents, civil registrations, and immigration records frequently play an important role in these applications.
Hungary
Hungary maintains a broad citizenship-by-descent framework for descendants of Hungarian nationals.
Applicants generally need to prove their Hungarian ancestry and satisfy procedural requirements established under Hungarian nationality law.
In some circumstances, language ability may become relevant depending on the legal basis used for the application.
Hungary continues to attract applicants from Central Europe, North America, South America, and other regions with historic Hungarian diaspora communities.
Germany
Germany primarily grants citizenship by descent through parents rather than distant ancestry.
However, the country also provides important restoration pathways for descendants of individuals who lost German citizenship because of persecution during the Nazi era or discriminatory nationality laws.
These restoration provisions have enabled thousands of families to reclaim German citizenship while correcting historical injustices.
Germany’s recent nationality reforms have focused mainly on naturalization rather than ancestry-based citizenship.
Portugal
Portugal offers citizenship by descent in several circumstances.
Children of Portuguese citizens generally qualify automatically, while grandchildren may also become eligible if they can demonstrate sufficient connections required under Portuguese nationality law, along with A2-level Portuguese.
Portugal’s nationality law changed significantly in 2026. Lei Orgânica n.º 1/2026, in force since May 19, 2026, closed the Sephardic Jewish descent route to new applicants and introduced a new route for great-grandchildren of Portuguese citizens, requiring B1 Portuguese, five years of legal residence in Portugal, and proof of effective connection to the Portuguese community. The parent and grandparent routes were not affected. The reform also extended naturalization timelines for non-descent applicants, from five to ten years generally.
Greece
Greek nationality law recognizes citizenship by descent through Greek parents and, in many cases, grandparents.
Applicants usually need to establish an unbroken family lineage supported by official civil registration records.
Because historical documentation may vary between regions and time periods, obtaining complete family records can be one of the most challenging aspects of the application.
Romania
Romania offers one of Europe’s more unique ancestry pathways.
In addition to standard descent provisions, Romanian law allows certain former Romanian citizens and many of their descendants to restore citizenship if their ancestors lost nationality because of historical border changes.
This has made Romania an important option for applicants with family roots in territories historically connected to Romania.
Bulgaria
Bulgaria recognizes citizenship by descent for individuals able to demonstrate Bulgarian ancestry.
Applicants generally need to provide evidence confirming their Bulgarian origin alongside the supporting civil documentation required during the application process.
Lithuania
Lithuania provides citizenship by descent and also offers restoration opportunities for descendants of former Lithuanian citizens who left the country before or during the Second World War, subject to specific legal conditions.
The rules surrounding dual citizenship may vary depending on the circumstances under which citizenship is restored.
Latvia
Latvia allows certain descendants of Latvian citizens to reclaim nationality, particularly where families left Latvia during periods of occupation or political upheaval.
Applicants must satisfy documentary requirements proving both family lineage and historical citizenship.
Czech Republic
The Czech Republic permits citizenship by descent primarily through parents and, in certain circumstances, grandparents.
Recent legislative developments have also expanded opportunities for some descendants of former Czechoslovak citizens.
Croatia
Croatia continues to recognize citizenship through Croatian ancestry, particularly for descendants of Croatian emigrants.
Depending on individual circumstances, applicants may need to demonstrate both lineage and cultural or legal connections established under Croatian nationality legislation.
Spain
Spain closed one of Europe’s largest ancestry-based citizenship programs in 2025.
For decades, Spanish nationality law limited citizenship by descent mainly to children of Spanish citizens, with grandchildren and later generations generally excluded. A temporary measure changed that. The Ley de Memoria Democrática, known informally as the Grandchildren’s Law, allowed descendants of Spaniards exiled during the Civil War and the Franco dictatorship to claim citizenship without the standard residency requirement.
That window closed on October 22, 2025. Spain is no longer accepting new applications under this pathway. Applications submitted before the deadline are still being processed, with authorities expecting the backlog, which reached over 1.5 million filings, to take several more years to clear.
No successor program has been announced. For now, ancestry alone no longer opens a path to Spanish citizenship outside the standard parent-to-child rule.
Countries With More Restrictive Rules
Not every European country offers expansive ancestry-based citizenship.
Countries such as France, Belgium, the Netherlands, Denmark, Finland, Sweden, and Austria generally limit citizenship by descent to children of citizens or impose much stricter eligibility rules.
As a result, ancestry alone is often insufficient in many European jurisdictions.
Common Documents Required
Although requirements vary between countries, applicants are commonly asked to provide:
- Birth certificates for each generation
- Marriage certificates where applicable
- Death certificates
- Naturalization or citizenship records
- Historical civil registration documents
- Valid passports and identification
- Official translations
- Apostilles or legalizations where required
Even a single missing document can significantly delay an application, particularly when reconstructing family histories that span multiple generations.
How Long Does the Process Take?
Processing times differ substantially across Europe.
Straightforward applications may be completed within a year, while more complex cases involving historical archives, court decisions, or document reconstruction can take several years.
Consular workloads, document verification, and national administrative procedures all influence overall timelines.
Applicants should also expect waiting periods for appointments at some overseas consulates.
Common Reasons Applications Are Rejected
Citizenship by descent applications are most commonly unsuccessful because of:
- Incomplete family documentation
- Inability to prove continuous lineage
- Ancestors who lost citizenship before passing it to descendants
- Incorrect or inconsistent civil records
- Failure to satisfy current nationality legislation
- Legislative changes introduced before an application is submitted
The recent Italian reforms demonstrate that eligibility rules can change quickly, making early legal assessment increasingly valuable.
Citizenship by Descent vs. Other Immigration Pathways
Citizenship by descent differs significantly from other immigration options.
Naturalization generally requires years of legal residence, language ability, integration requirements, and continuous physical presence.
Residency-by-investment programs provide residence rights but usually do not grant immediate citizenship.
Citizenship-by-investment programs, where available, involve qualifying financial contributions under government-approved frameworks.
By contrast, citizenship by descent is based entirely on family lineage rather than residence history or financial investment.
For eligible applicants, it may represent the most direct path to European citizenship.
Is Citizenship by Descent Right for You?
Many people are unaware that they may already qualify for European citizenship through their family history.
Individuals with parents, grandparents, or even earlier ancestors from countries such as Ireland, Poland, Hungary, Romania, Portugal, or Lithuania may have options worth exploring.
However, every application depends on the specific nationality law of the country involved, historical changes to that law, and the applicant’s documented family lineage.
Professional legal guidance and thorough genealogical research can often determine whether an ancestry-based claim is viable before significant time and resources are invested.
Final Thoughts
Citizenship by descent continues to be one of Europe’s most valuable legal pathways to nationality in 2026. It offers an opportunity to reconnect with family heritage while gaining the rights associated with European citizenship.
Yet the landscape is evolving faster than it has in decades. Italy’s 2025 reform narrowed eligibility to parents and grandparents. Spain closed its ancestry-based pathway entirely that same year, ending a program that had drawn over a million applications. Portugal followed in 2026, closing one descent route while opening a new, more conditional one for great-grandchildren. Together, these changes show that governments are willing to revisit ancestry-based citizenship even after decades of treating it as settled. Other countries continue to preserve their descent routes, but each applies its own distinct legal standards and documentary requirements, and none of them are guaranteed to stay unchanged.
For individuals with European roots, understanding today’s rules, not those that existed five or ten years ago, is the first step toward determining whether citizenship by descent remains an available pathway.
